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البته با مراجعه به سایت دانشگاه تهران و خواجه نصیر و دیگر دانشگاه ها با تمام سعی و تلاش مطالبی که دارای این پیوستگی و نظم باشد متاسفانه پیدا نشد لذا به ناچار از این منابع استفاده نمودم

البته اکثر این مطالب مربوط به چند ده سال گذشته می باشد و جای بسی تعجب دارد که اکثر مطالبی که در دانشکده های نقشه برداری در سطح کارشناسی و کارشناسی ارشد تدریس می شود برگرفته ازاین مطالب است که در زمینه های مختلف نقشه برداری به رشته تحریر در آمده است

به عبارت بهتر دانش نقشه برداری در ایران حدود ده ها سال است که از اساتیدی بزرگ به دانش آموختگانی منتقل شده ونخبگان این دانش آموختگان این مطالب را به دانش آموختگانی دیگر ارائه می دهند و باز هم نخبگان این دانش آموختگان این مطالب را به دیگران ارائه می دهند براستی انتهای این چرخه معیوب به کجا می انجامد

ای کاش امسال که سال نو آوری و شکوفایی نام دارد شاهد قطع این چرخه معیوب در دانشکده های نقشه برداری و دیگر مراکز علمی باشیم و با تولید علم در دانشگاه ها و انتقال و ارائه آن به جامعه و گسترش آن و عدم انحصاری کردن آن در دست عده ای محدود زمینه پیشرفت و آبادانی ایران اسلامی را فراهم کنیم

کشوری که بزرگانی امثال خواجه نصیر الدین طوسی را به جامعه بشری معرفی نموده است و زکات علم در آیین شان آموختن آن به دیگران است نباید منابع علمی رشته های دانشگاهی آن از کشورهای دیگر بیاید بلکه لازم است خود به تولید علم اقدام نموده

به امید آن روز

Adjustment

ch03Slides ((Matlab Programming))

coordinate system

Earth-pole wobble

geodesy

geodesy&gravity

geodetic & surveying

GUIDE TO GPS POSITIONING

LN49

LN57

map projections

matrices

TENSORS

THE EARTH TIDES

در پایان خواهشمندم در صورتی که هر کدام از لینک ها احتمالا ایراد داشت ما را مطلع نموده تا نسبت به رفع آن اقدام کنیم

و چنانچه مطالب دیگری را لازم می دانید که به آن اضافه کنیم در اختیار ما قرار داده تا در این پست قرار دهیم

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برای مشاهده مطالب می توانید از برنامه Adobe Reader 9
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Adobe Reader 9

که به زبان لاتین است رابه همراه فایل ترجمه آن در اختیار شما گرامیان قرار می دهیم امیدوارم مفید واقع شود

Virtual Reality

By Olin Lathrop, Updated April 1999

What is Virtual Reality?

Virtual Reality is a bad name for a good idea. Throughout the relatively short history of computer graphics, engineers have strived to develop more realistic, responsive, and immersive means for the human to interact with the computer. What is often called virtual reality (or simply VR) is the latest in that progression.

The name Virtual Worlds is being used by some in an attempt to be more realistic. Unfortunately this has not yet caught on in a major way. You are still much more likely to hear the term Virtual
Reality, so that’s what I’ll use in this introduction to avoid confusing you with non-standard terms.

While there is no one definition of VR everyone will agree on, there is at least one common
thread. VR goes beyond the flat monitor that you simply look at, and tries to immerse you in a
three dimensional visual world. The things you see appear to be in the room with you, instead of
stuck on a flat area like a monitor screen. As you might imagine, there are a number of techniques
for acheiving this, each with its own tradeoff between degree of immersion, senses envolved
beyond sight, computational requirements, physical contraints, cost, and others.

Some VR Systems

We’ll start simple and build step by step to more fancy systems. This will help you understand how we got to where we are, and better appreciate the wide range of solutions with their various tradeoffs.

Stereo Viewing

An important aspect of VR is that the things you look at are presented in three dimesions.
Humans see the world around them in 3D using many different techniques. Probably the most powerful technique for nearby (a few tens of meters) objects is called stereoscopic.

In stereoscopic 3D perception, we use the fact that we have two eyes that are set some distance apart from each other. When we look at a nearby object we measure the difference in angle from each eye to the object. Knowing this angle, the distance between the eyes, and a bit of trigonometry, we compute the distance to the object. Fortunately this is done for us sub-conciously by an extremely sophisticated image processor in our brain. We simply perceive the end result as objects at specific locations in the space around us.

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Figure 1 – A Stereo Pair of Images
Cross your eyes so that the two images overlap as one image in the center. This may be easier if you move back from the page a bit. After a while, your eyes will lock and re-focus on the center image. When that happens, you will see the 3D layout of the spheres pop out at you. Don’t feel bad if you can’t see it. I’ve found that roughly 1/3 of the people can see it within a minute, another 1/3 can see it with practise, and the remaining 1/3 seem to have a hard time.

Figure 1 shows stereo viewing in action. When you cross your eyes as directed, your right eye sees the left image, and your left eye sees the right image. For those of you that can see it, the effect is quite pronounced, despite the relatively minor differences between the two images.

So, one way to make a 3D computer graphics display is to render two images from slightly different eye points, then present them separately to each eye. Once again there are several ways of achieving this.

Shutter Glasses

Probably the simplest way of displaying stereo computer images is by using the existing monitor. Suppose the display alternates rapidly between the left and right eye images. We could then make sure each eye only saw the image intended for it by opening a shutter in front of the eye when its image is being displayed. The shutters would have to be synchronized to the display.

This is exactly what shutter glasses are. They typically use electronic shutters made with liquid crystals. Another variation places the shutter over the monitor screen. Instead of blocking or unblocking the light, this shutter changes the light polarization between the left and right eye images. You can now wear passive polarizing glasses where the polarizer for each eye only lets thru the image that was polarized for that eye.

While this form of stereo viewing can provide good 3D preception and is suitable for many tasks, I don’t personally consider this VR yet. The image or 3D scene is still “stuck” in the monitor. You are still looking at the picture in a box, instead of being in the scene with the objects you are viewing.

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Figure 2 – Shutter Glasses and Controller
CrystalsEyes product by StereoGraphics. This image was swiped from their web page.

Head Mounted Display

Another way to present a separate image to each eye is to use a separate monitor for each eye. This can be done by mounting small monitors in some sort of head gear. With the right optics, the monitors can appear large and at a comfortable viewing distance. This setup is usually referred to as a head mounted display, or HMD for short.

I don’t think of this by itself as VR yet either, although we’re getting closer. You can have a reasonable field of view with great latitude in the placement of 3D objects, but the objects appear to move with your head. That’s certainly not what happens when you turn your head in Real Reality.

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Figure 3 – Head Mounted Display in Use
The head mounted display is a Virtual Research VR4000. This image was swiped from their web page.

Head Tracking
What if the computer could sense the position and orientation of your head in real time?
Assuming we have a sufficiently fast computer and a head mounted display (that’s where the position/orientation sensor is hidden), we could re-render the image for each eye in real time also, taking into account the exact eye position. Objects could then be defined in a fixed space. As you moved your head around, the eye images would update to present the illusion of a 3D object at a fixed location in the room, just like real objects. Of course, the objects themselves can be moving too. But the important thing is that they are moving within some fixed frame that you can also move around in.

Now we’ve reached the minimum capabilities I’m willing to call VR.

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Figure 4 – Position and Orientation Sensors
UltraTrak product by Polhemus. The position and orientation of each of the sensors on the table are reported to the computer in real time. The data is relative to the large ball on top of the unit, which contains three orthogonal magnetic coils. Individual sensors can be imbedded in a head mounted display, fixed to various body parts, or mounted on other object that move around. This image was swiped from the Polhemus web page.

Hand Tracking
But wait, there’s more. We can use more motion sensors and track the position and orientation of other objects, like your fingers, for example. Just like a mouse or joystick can be used to control a program, your finger actions could be used to control a program. This might take the form of pushing virtual menu buttons, or maybe grabbing an object and moving it around with your hand. The possible interactions are virtually boundless, limited mostly by the software designer’s imagination.

Hand and finger position and orientation is typically achieved by wearing a special glove that has a position sensor on it and can sense the angles of your finger joints. This can be taken a step further by wearing a whole suite with imbedded joint angle sensors.

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Figure 5 – Glove that senses joint angles
This is the CyberGlove by Virtual Technologies. It reports various joint angles back to the computer. This image was swiped from a Virtual Technologies web page.

Force Feedback

So far we can be in the same space with the objects we’re viewing and interact with them thru hand motions, but we can’t feel them. That’s where force feedback comes in. This is also referred to as haptic feedback. Suppose the special glove (or body suit) you were wearing could not only sense joint angles, but also had actuators that could push back at you. With some clever software and fast computers, the actuators could present the illusion of hard objects at particular locations. You can now not only see it in 3D, walk around it, control it, but also bump into it.

Note that force feedback is currently limited to “pushing back” to simulate the existance of a object. It does not provide other parts of what we call tactile feel, like texture, temperature, etc.

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Figure 6 – Haptic Feedback Glove

No, this isn’t some midieval torture device. It’s the Cybergrasp product by Virtual Technologies. The cables and pulleys on the outside of the glove can be used to “push back” at the operator under computer control. This can be used, among other things, to allow the wearer to feel the presence of objects in the virtual world.

The CAVE

Instead of using a head mounted display, imagine a room where output of computer displays is projected onto the walls. The projected images are in stereo by rapidly alternating between the two eye images. You stand somewhere near the middle and wear shutter glasses for a 3D effect.

This concept was first developed in 1991 at the Electronic Visualization Lab of the University of Illinois at Chicago. Several other CAVE systems have since been set up at other sites.

Applications

I’m just going to briefly mention a few areas VR technology is used.

Entertainment

This is definitely the biggest market, and is the main force for driving down prices on VR hardware. You can be in a computer game with computer generated players and/or other real players.

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Figure 7 – Virtual Reality Gaming
An Ascension Technology SpacePad motion tracker is being used in conjunction with a head mounted display and hand buttons to implement a gaming station. This image was swiped from the Ascension Technology web page.

Augmented Reality

Imagine a VR head mounted display as we’ve discussed, but the display doesn’t block out the regular view, it’s just superimposed on it. Imagine walking around a building and “seeing” inside the walls to the wiring, plumbing, and structure. Or, seeing the tumor inside a patient’s head as you hack away at it.

Training

VR is already being used in to teach people how to use expensive equipment, or when the cost of a mistake in Real Reality is very high. For example, use of VR is getting more common in aircraft simulators used as part of an overall program to train pilots. The benefits are also substantial for military applications for obvious reasons.

Remote Robotics

This is another “real” application that is gaining much attention. Suppose you had a robot that had arms and hands modeled after those of humans. It could have two video cameras where we have eyes. You could be wearing a head mounted display and see what the robot sees in real time. If your head, arm, and hand motions are sensed and replicated in the robot,

for many applications you could be where the robot is without really being there.

This could be useful and worth all the trouble in situations where you can’t physically go, or you wouldn’t be able to survive. Examples might be in hostile environments like high radiation areas in nuclear power plants, deep undersea, or in outer space. The robot also doesn’t need to model a human exactly. It could be made larger and stronger to perform more physical labor than you could, or it might be smaller to fit into a pipe you couldn’t. Remote robotics could also be a way to project a special expertise to a remote site quicker than bringing a person there. Some law enforcement and military applications also come to mind.
Distributed collaboration

VR is being employed to allow geographically distributed people to do more together than simply hear and see each other as allowed by telephone or videoconferencing.

For example, the military is using VR to create virtual battles. Each soldier participates from his own point of view in an overall simulation that may envolve thousands of individuals. All participants need not be in physical proximity, only connected on a network.

This technology is still in its infancy, but evolving rapidly. I expect commercial applications of distributed collaboration to slowly gain momentum over the next several years.

Visualization

Scientists at NASA/Ames and other places have been experimenting with VR as a visualization research tool. Imagine being able to walk around a new aircraft design as it’s in a simulated mach 5 wind tunnel. VR can be used to “see” things humans can’t normally see, like air flow, temperature, pressure, strain, etc.

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Figure 8 – Simulated picture of VR used in visualization

This picture tries to show us what the virtual world looks like to the two engineers. Some of this is wishful thinking, but it still does a good job of illustrating the concepts. Note that no finger position sensors or force feedback devices are apparent, even though the bottom engineer is selecting virtual menu buttons, and the other engineer seems to be resting his hand on the model. Also, anyone in the room not wearing a display would not be able to see the model at all. This image was swiped from the Virtual Research home page.

Problems

The current state of VR is far from everything we could imagine or want. A few of the open issues are:

Cost

This stuff is just too expensive for everyone to have one, and it’s likely to stay that way for quite a while.

What’s it Good For?

I listed some application areas above, but note that none of them solve common everyday problems. While VR certainly has its application niches – and the number is steadily growing – it’s hard to imagine how it can help the average secretary type a letter on a word processor.

Display Resolution

Head mounted displays need to be small and light else you get a sore neck real fast. Unfortunately, the display resolution is therefore limited. Most displays are only about 640 pixels accross, which is a tiny fraction of what a normal human can see over the same angle of view.

Update Speed

Most VR displays are updated at 30 Herz (30 times per second). This requires a large amount of computation, just to maintain what looks and feels like “nothing is happening”. The amount of computation required also depends on the scene complexity. VR is therefore limited to relatively “simple” scenes that can be rendered in 1/30 second or faster. This currently procludes any of the rendering methods that can provide shadows, reflections, transparency, and other realistic lighting effects. As a result, VR scenes look very “computer-ish”.

The standard 30 Herz update rate comes from existing systems intended for displaying moving images on a fixed monitor or other screen. With VR, you also have take into account how fast something needs to be updated as the user’s head turns to present the illusion of a steady object. Apparently, that requires considerably more than 30 Herz for the full effect.

برای دریافت کل فایل به پسوند PDF اینجا کلیک کنید

شامل 7 صفحه لاتین و 13 صفحه ترجمه به همراه تصاویر
در صورت نیاز به فایل ورد در قسمت نظرات اعلام کنید تا در اسرع وقت نسبت به ارسال آن برای شما اقدام گردد

با توجه به این موضوعات بر آن شدیم تا هر از چند گاهی یک متن تخصصی از زبان انگلیسی و در صورت امکان و همکاری عزیزان به همراه ترجمه آنرا در اختیار دوستان قرار دهیم

لذا از تمام دوستان مستدعی است در صورت در اختیار داشتن متون مناسب آن را در اختیار ما قرار داده تا نسبت به قرار دادن آن در سایت اقدام گردد

نام نویسی در سایت و قرار دادن موضوعات توسط خودتان موجب امتنان است

(( در قسمت ورود به سایت رفته و مراحل آن را طی کنید از این پس شما یکی از نویسندگان اصلی سایت eGeomaticمی باشید ))

متن زیر قسمتی از یک متن تخصصی در باره GPS است که به امید خدا در آینده ای نزدیک فایل ترجمه آن را در این پست قرار میدهم

دریافت فایل چاپی لاتین

Chapter 1
Introduction to GPS

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based radio-positioning and timetransfer system designed, financed, deployed, and operated by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS has also demonstrated a significant benefit to the civilian community who are applying GPS to a rapidly expanding number of applications. What attracts us to GPS is:

• The relatively high positioning accuracies, from tens of metres down to the millimetre level.
• The capability of determining velocity and time, to an accuracy commensurate with position.
• The signals are available to users anywhere on the globe: in the air, on the ground, or at sea.
• Its is a positioning system with no user charges, that simply requires the use of relatively low cost hardware.
• It is an all-weather system, available 24 hours a day.
• The position information is in three dimensions, that is, vertical as well as horizontal information is provided.

The number of civilian users is already significantly greater than that of the military users. However, for the time being the U.S. military still operates several “levers” with which they control the performance of GPS (Section 1.2.3). Nevertheless, despite the handicap of GPS being a military system there continues to be tremendous product innovation within the civilian sector, and it is ironic that this innovative drive is partly directed to developing technology and procedures to overcome some of the constraints to GPS performance which have been applied by the system’s military operators.

1.1 Introduction to the System Components

1.1.1 System Design Considerations

Development work on GPS commenced within the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973, the motivation being to develop an all-weather, 24-hour, global positioning system to support the positioning requirements for the armed forces of the U.S. and its allies. (For a background to the development of the GPS system the reader is referred to [1].) The system was therefore designed to replace the large variety of navigational systems already in use, and great emphasis was placed on the system’s reliability and survivability. In short, a number of stringent conditions had to be met:

• suitable for all classes of platform: aircraft (jet to helicopter), ship, land (vehicle-mounted to handheld) and space (missiles and satellites),
• able to handle a wide variety of dynamics,
• real-time positioning, velocity and time determination capability to an appropriate accuracy,
• the positioning results were to be available on a single global geodetic datum,
• highest accuracy to be restricted to a certain class of user,
• resistant to jamming (intentional and unintentional),
• redundancy provisions to ensure the survivability of the system,
• passive positioning system that does not require the transmission of signals from the user to the satellite(s),
• able to provide the service to an unlimited number of users,
• low cost, low power, therefore as much complexity as possible should be built into the satellite segment, and
• total replacement of the Transit1 satellite and other terrestrial navaid systems. This led to a design based on the following essential concepts:
• A one-way ranging system, in which the satellites transmit signals, but are unaware of who is using the signal (no receiving function). As a result the user (or listener) cannot easily be: (a) detected by the enemy (military context), or (b) charged for using the system (civilian context).
• Use of the latest atomic clock and microwave transmission technology, including spreadspectrum techniques.
• A system that makes range-like measurements with the aid of pseudo-random binary codes Introduction to GPS Chris Rizos, University of New South Wales, 1999© modulated on carrier signals.
• Satellite signals that are unaffected by cloud and rain.
• A multiple satellite system which ensures there is always a sufficient number of satellites visible simultaneously anywhere on the globe, and at any time.
• Positioning accuracy degradation that is graceful.

What was perhaps unforeseen by the system designers was the power of product innovation, which has added significantly to the versatility of the GPS as a system for precise positioning and navigation. For example, GPS is able to support a number of positioning and measurement modes in order to satisfy simultaneously a variety of users, from those satisfied with general navigational accuracies (tens of metres) to those demanding very high (sub-centimetre) relative positioning accuracies. It has now so penetrated certain applications areas that it is difficult for us to imagine life without GPS!

Rarely have so many seemingly unrelated technological advances been required to make a complex system such as GPS work. Briefly they are:

Space System Reliability :
The U.S. space program had by 1973 demonstrated the reliability of space hardware. In particular, the Transit system had offered important lessons. The Transit satellites were originally designed to last 2-3 years in orbit, yet some of the satellites have operated well beyond their design life. In fact Transit continued to perform reliably for over 25 years.

Atomic Clock Technology:
With the development of atomic clocks a new era of precise time-keeping had commenced. However, before the GPS program was launched these precise clocks had never been tested in space. The development of reliable, stable, compact, space-qualified atomic frequency oscillators (rubidium, and then cesium) was therefore a significant technological breakthrough. The advanced clocks now being used on the GPS satellites routinely achieve long-term frequency stability in the range of a few parts in 1014 per day (about 1 sec in 3,000,000 years!). This long-term stability is one of the keys to GPS, as it allows for the autonomous, synchronised generation and transmission of accurate timing signals by each of the GPS satellites without continuous monitoring from the ground.

Quartz Crystal Oscillator Technology:
In order to keep the cost of user equipment down, quartz crystal oscillators were proposed (similar to those used in modern digital watches), rather than using atomic clocks as in the GPS satellites. Besides their low cost, quartz oscillators have excellent short-term stability. However, their long-term drift must be accounted for as part of the user position determination process.

Precise Satellite Tracking and Orbit Determination: Successful operation of GPS, as well as the Transit system, depends on the precise knowledge and prediction of a satellite’s position with respect to an earth-fixed reference system. Tracking data collected by ground monitor stations is
analysed to determine the satellite orbit over the period of tracking (typically one week). This reference ephemeris is extrapolated into the future and the data is then up-loaded to the satellites. Prediction accuracies of the satellite coordinates, for one day, at the few metre level have been demonstrated.

Spread-Spectrum Technology:
The ability to track and obtain any selected GPS satellite signal (a receiver will be required to track a number of satellites at the same time), in the presence of considerable ambient noise is a critical technology. This is now possible using spread-spectrum and pseudo-random-noise coding techniques.

Large-Scale Integrated Circuit Technology:
To realise the desired low cost, low power and small size necessary for much of the user equipment, the GPS program relies heavily on the successful application of VLSI circuits, and powerful computing capabilities built onto them.

The GPS system consists of three segments (figure 1.1). (Good general references on the GPS system are [2,3].):
• The Space Segment:
comprising the satellites and the transmitted signals.

• The Control Segment:
the ground facilities carrying out the task of satellite tracking, orbit computations, telemetry and supervision necessary for the daily control of the space segment.
• The User Segment:
the entire spectrum of applications equipment and computational techniques that are available to the users.

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در پایان مستدعی است در صورت بروز هر گونه مساله یا سوال ما را مطلع نموده تا نسبت به رفع آن اقدام کنیم

در صورت نیاز به فایلهای اصلی با نوشتن ایمیل در بخش نظرات آن را برای شما ارسال می کنیم

لازم به ذکر است که متون بصورت زبان انگلیسی است

دریافت فایل بصورت PDF

قسمت اول

قسمت دوم

قسمت سوم

قسمت چهارم

قسمت پنجم

قسمت ششم

قسمت هفتم

قسمت هشتم

قسمت نهم

از شما دوستان خواهشمند می کنیم در صورت بروز هر گونه مشکل در لینکها ما را در جریان قرار داده تا نسبت به رفع آن اقدام گردد

اگه به سوالات زبان تخصصی نقشه برداری و یا شاید هر رشته ی دیگه ای نگاه کنید متوجه میشید که سطح سوالات در این چند سال اخیر بالا رفته و سخت تر شدن.

تعداد سوالات زیان انگلیسی رشته نقشه برداری 30 عدد می باشد که ازین 30 تست 15 تست اول عمومی و 15 تست آخر تخصصی می باشند.
از 15 تست عمومی 10 تست اولیه مربوط به لغات عمومی (Vocabulary) و 5 تست مانده مربوط به گرامر (Grammar) می باشد که معمولا این 5 تست در یک close test آورده می شود.
15 تست باقیمانده تخصصی بوده که در سال های اخیر معمولا در 3 Passage یا Reading امده است ( هر passage شامل 5 سوال می باشد)
ضریب زبان انگلیسی در کنکور سراسری کارشناسی ارشد رشته نقشه برداری 1 می باشد.

کتاب هایی که خواندنشان توصیه میشود:
کتاب 504 ( 504Absolutely Essential Word ) بوده به نظر من خواندن این کتاب واجبه اما جواب گو نیست!
به نظرم باید کتاب Essential words for Toefl را هم خواند (بازم ممکنه لغاتی بیاد که تو این 2 کتاب نباشه!) این کتاب نسبتا سنگینه!!!

برای لغات تخصصی
باید تا می توانیم متن تخصصی و مقالات مربوط به رشتمون را بخوانیم.
کتاب “انگلیسی برای دانشجویان رشته نقشه برداری” نویسندگان: محمد عباس نژاد و مهدی مسیب زاده از انتشارات سمت هم کتاب خوبیه و می تونه مفید باشه.
کتاب ونیچک (Geodesy The concept ) تو این زمینه واقا کمک می کنه

امیدوارم توضیحاتم جامع بوده باشن.

قبل از اون یک سری لغات تقریبا پرکاربد رو باهم مرور کنیم (البته دامنه لغات بسیار زیادن. من سعی کردم عده معدودی رو برای شروع انتخاب کنم)

صحت ………………………………………..accuracy
دقت ………………………………………… precision

ثقل ……………………………………………..gravity
جاذبه………………………………………. gravitation

گریز از مرکز …………………………………centrifugal
امتداد شاغولی…………………………….plumb line
فاصله یابی …………………………………… ranging
اندازه گیری ……………………………. measurement
عمود(ی) ……………… normal or perpendicular
اخراج عمود ……………………………………. offset
متداد یا راست (خط مستقیم) ………… alignment
مجاور (همسایه) …………………………… adjacent
تغییرات موقت …………………. temporal variation
تالیف ……………………………………..copmilation
مخزن دوربین ……………………………. magazine
ویژگی (مشخصه) ………………………….. attribute
هم پوشانی ……………………. overlap or overlay
متر ……………………………………………. tape
سمه (راس) ………………………………. vertex
تصویر ……………………………………. projection
نصف النهار ………………………………… meridian
پیاده کردن ……………………… .. set out or lay out
زاویه حامل (ژیزمان) ………………………. bearing
نقطه اتصال ……………………………….juction point
روزانه ……………………………………….diurnal
عمق یابی ………………………………. sounding
زمینی …………………………………. terrestrial
هوایی…………………………………………… aerial
دریایی ……………………………………….. marine
اعوجاج …………………………………….. distortion
بزرگنمایی………………………………. magnification
انحراف قائم……………………. deflection of vertical
طول نجومی……………….. astronomical longitude
عرض نجومی…………………. astronomical latitude
هم بستگی……………………………….. correlation